Development Of Attachment Of The Learning And Evolutionary...

I will be evaluating the development of attachment of the learning and evolutionary theories. I will also be looking at different view points regarding the impact of early experience on later life. The first theory I will be looking at is the learning theory. The learning theory is also called behaviourism, which says all of our behaviour is learnt because â€Å"when born our mind is tabula rasa (a blank slate).† (McLeod, 2007). The behaviourist theory of attachment was proposed by Dollard Miller in 1950, who suggests that attachment is a set of learned behaviours linked to provision of food, and an infant will initially form an attachment to whoever feeds it as mentioned by Mcleod (2009). The way the infant is learning to associate to food and the person feeding them is through classical conditioning (CC) or operant conditioning (OC). I will focus on using CC to show how attachment is formed. CC was founded by Ivan Pavlov and his research on dogs. However, in 1920 Watson and Raynor conducted a study on ‘ Little Albert’ . what they did was give him a phobia of anything white and fluffy using CC as mentioned in Gross (2010,p162). How an infants would form attachment using this idea is food would be the unconditioned stimulus (US) and happiness would be the unconditioned response (UR).The US paired with the mother which is the conditioned response (CR) would causes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which is happiness. Harry Harlow (1958) conducted a study wanting to proveShow MoreRelatedBowlby s Theory Of Attachment1255 Words   |  6 PagesAttachment refers to an affectional bond; a bond which is exclusive to an individual and cannot be exchanged to another. A particularly important bond is the emotional one between an infant and its primary care giver. When it comes to attachment it is often said that it is either down to nature or nurture. Nature is the belief that it is genetic based whilst nurture believes it is our environment and experiences. Bowlby focuses on the evolutionary argument for attachment. Bowlby’s theory can beRead MoreLearning Theory Of Attachment And The Other Being Bowlbys Evolution Theory1692 Words   |  7 PagesEarly social development is the study of the development of persons from infancy to adulthood. Research is conducted into how childhood experiences affect people’s development in later life. Attachment theories are studied and the effect of no attachment or disrupted attachment is studied and aimed to be resolved. John Bowlby defined attachment as the emotional and physical connection that makes two people stay close to one another. It is between children and their primary caregivers (PsychologistworldRead MoreEssay on Psychology1023 Words   |  5 Pages†¢behaviourism-the study of behaviour in an objective way. †¢social learning theory/cognitive behaviourism †¢attachment theory †¢evolutionary theory †¢behavioural genetics †¢Piaget’s theory of cognitive development †¢Erikson’s theory †¢developmental systems Define and describe the following research methods †¢correlational study †¢experimental study †¢cross sectional study †¢longitudinal study Study Questions 1. Define cohort and briefly summarize at least one major differenceRead MoreThe Development Of Attachment Theory1336 Words   |  6 Pagesessay will look at the development of attachment theory since the time of Bowlby and the many theories proposed to determine which best describes attachment. The Attachment theory highlights the importance of attachment especially between mothers and infants in regards to the infants personal development, both physically and emotionally. Bowlby describes attachment as â€Å"lasting psychological connectedness between human beings†(Bowlby, 1969, p.194). Bowlby’s attachment theory suggested that mothersRead MoreThe Debate Of Nature Vs Nurture1445 Words   |  6 Pagesperspectives and theories from the behaviourist and biological approaches and the objective of this assignment is to discuss the importance of attachment in human development. To do this we can make reference to the case of Genie who suffered severe neglect as a child. B ehaviourism was first introduced by John Watson who opposed the naturists and took the view that the mind is there to be manipulated through conditioning methods and so attachments are learned. However there are theories and studies whichRead MoreThe Theory Of Developmental Psychology1336 Words   |  6 PagesDevelopmental psychology is viewed as different approaches which aims to look at how children and adults develop. Theories such as Bowlby s attachment theory can explain how a child s development can be altered by their attachment, thus leading to the ideology of the nature vs nurture debate, nature referring to the process of biological maturation while nurture is referring to the impact of the environment or surroundings, which involves the idea that a person learns through experiences. (McLeodRead MorePsychology: Attachment Theory2561 Words   |  11 PagesPsychology - Attachment Revision What is Attachment?:- â€Å"Attachment is the close bond between two people which endures over time and leads to certain behaviors such as proximity seeking, clinging and distress on separation, These behaviors serve the function of protecting an infant† Exam Question 1: ‘Explain Bowlby’s theory of attachment?’ (For top marks, mention: Social releasers, Sensitive Period, Montropy, internal model and the continuity hypothesis): * â€Å"Bowlby’s theory of attachment is an evolutionaryRead MoreThe Theory Of Classical Conditioning Theory Essay712 Words   |  3 PagesThe attachment theory is a psychological, an ethological and an evolutionary theory that is concerned with relationships between humans, specifically between mother and infant. An infant has to develop a relationship with at least one of their primary caregivers for them to develop socially and emotionally. This essay will look at evaluating the theories of Ivan Pavlov, John B Watson, Edward Thorndike, BF Skinner, John Bowlby (1958), and Mary Anisworth (1979) Two important learning theories of behavioristRead MoreSecure Attachment Relationship Between Young Children And Their Families898 Words   |  4 PagesSecure Attachment Relationship The mother is usually the first and primary object of attachment for an infant, but in many cultures, babies become just as attached to their fathers, siblings, and grandparents. When infants are attached to their caregivers, they gain a secure base from which babies can explore their environment and a haven of safety to return to when they are afraid. Attachment begins with physical touching and cuddling between infant and parent. Some babies become secure or insecureRead More To what extent and in what ways are people ?fixed? and ?open to change1567 Words   |  7 Pages Charles Darwin was not only a pioneer in evolutionary psychology, also today’s theories of modern lifespan development draw on and are influenced by Darwin’s ideas. His functionalist perspective primarily focused on the reason for development of specific human characteristics over many generations, and therefore an enormously long timescale. However, inspired by the observations in the development h is own son, Darwin also acknowledged that â€Å"an individual is the result of a gradual sequence of prior

The Benefits Of The Health Care System - 849 Words

The AAC provides services for men/women based on their individuals needs dealing with substance abuse and mental issues. In addition, AAC offers service not only for the individual, but family therapy, on-site intensive workshops, and individualized addiction plans. Equally important, the addition plans are customized, according to the individual’s seriousness of addiction coupled with the presences of co-occurring mental health disorder. Last, the programs offered are CARF Accredited facilities Research-based therapy services, such as 12-Step based Experienced, qualified staff with Co-Occurring care (Dual Diagnosis), and Wellness-focused therapeutic services. The referral system necessitates services through clinical evaluation†¦show more content†¦For the most part, an the complimentary pre-admissions assessment determines the level of care needed for treatment. In addition, clients are involved in the development of their treatment plans, with a foundational perspective of a supportive atmosphere of dignity and respect. â€Å"To clarify, facts have shown that CODs associate with a compulsive substance abuse behavior and the severity of resistance of treatment are predictors of failure or underachievement† (Najt, Fusar-Poli, Brambilla, 2011). The Cornerstone of Recovery is a fully licensed substance abuse and co-occurring disorder treatment center. Not to mention, providing services to treat addiction and co-occurring disorders, and offer customized programs and services focused on individualized treatment plans for every patient. Last, the Cornerstone of Recovery Center provides professional and caring services, with a passion for helping addicts, alcoholics, and their families. For the most part, arrangements are made through the AO Unit, who completes the initial intake for individuals. Not to mention, the department coordinates evaluations and assessments, to orient patients to Cornerstone’s services andShow MoreRelatedBenefits Of Continuous Improvement Of Health Care System1399 Words   |  6 Pagesdue to the benefits of continuous improvement of health care system. Advanced countries in North America and Europe already have a higher proportion of their population over the age of 65, and a large proportion of older people live alone. One concern is that they are expected to be isolated from our society. Recently, this phenomenon can be easily observed across many Asian countries including Korea, Japan, and China, which challenges policy makers in these countries how to take care for the increasingRead MoreWhat Is Telehealth, The Benefits Of Health Care Information Systems?1537 Words   |  7 Pagesoutcomes and access to care and cost savings to the health care system motivates healthcare organizations to implement telehealth services or expand their virtual services. Hospitals are implementing telehealth to avoid unnecessary visits and give patients, most especially in rural areas, easier and faster access to medical care (Aston, 2015, p. 22). The use of telehealth has the potential to improve the quality of care, health outcomes, and patient satisfaction and lower health care costs if use appropriatelyRead MoreBenefits Of Payment Reimbursement Systems Within The Health Care Industry1038 Words   |  5 Pagesprogram strategies are a major part of administering health care. Reimbursement programs are a part of the United States (U.S) health care system. They represent a financial tool for providing cash flow to service physicians and hospitals. Most often, the ability to provide quality health care depends on the payment for the services given by physicians and hospitals. This paper presents a view of payment reimburseme nt systems within the health care industry. A comparative overview and description ofRead MoreSingle Payer System : Japan1302 Words   |  6 PagesSingle Payer System Japan is one of the countries that have a single payer system for their health care coverage. In Japan the cost for its citizens to have a health insurance is very cheap. Japan’s population is very healthy due to the fact that everyone in Japan has health care. In this country most insurance plans will include coverage for medical and dental care. People in Japan will less likely to get sick comparing to other countries. That is largely due to lifestyle factors, such as lowRead MoreInformation And Communication Technologies ( Ict )1722 Words   |  7 Pageslarge role in the day-to-day activities within the health care sector. It is generated and processed by health care providers, such as physicians, nurses and hospitals as they provide care to their patients. However, managing that information and using it productively poses an ongoing challenge. It is especially challenging in the complexity of the U.S. health care sector, with its many different types of providers, servi ces and settings for care (Congressional Budget Office, 2008). Information andRead MoreThe Australian Healthcare System Has Been Evolving Since The Beginning Of The Colonisation Of Australia1596 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The Australian healthcare system has been evolving since the beginning of the colonisation of Australia. Today, Australia has an extremely efficient healthcare system although it still has several issues. The influencing factors, structure, and current issues of the Australian healthcare system will be throughly discussed and explained in this essay. Influencing Factors When Australia was first colonised, health services were considered to be an issue to be dealt with by local governmentsRead MoreThe Demand For Cost Containment977 Words   |  4 Pages the decline trend in inpatient utilization, and the demands of managed care organizations for efficiency, cost containment, coordination of services, and accountability for service outcomes has changed hospitals strategic planning. Hospitals need to reconfigure and reorganize their health service delivery in order to meet the demands of managed care. To make their organization attractive to the managed care industry, system integration strategies began to emerge such as horizontal and vertical integrationRead MoreHealth Care Utilization Paper1332 Words   |  6 PagesHealth Care Utilization Paper In recent years, health care has been a huge topic in public debates, legislations, and even in deciding who will become the next president. There have been many acts, legislations, and debates on what the country has to do in regards to health care. According to University of Phoenix Read Me First HCS/235 (n.d.), â€Å"How health care is financed influences access to health care, how health care is delivered, the quality of health care provided, and its cost†. RecentRead MoreHealth Care Proposal Essay968 Words   |  4 PagesMy New Proposal for a New System Jamelia Hamilton Axia College of University of Phoenix Health care is one of the most important benefits to the people of the United States. Everybody needs health care and some people need more medical attention than others and some people do not even need health care, except for their yearly exams. Today health care has many strengths, weaknesses, and challenges. I have come up with a new exam that will hopefully benefit everybody in some way. My visionRead More Healthcare and the Competitive Market Structure Essay1016 Words   |  5 Pageswill. This does not describe the health care market in the US. There are certain assumptions that the competitive market model operates under some assumptions, first is the consumer/patient has full information about the nature of the services required, the anticipated results of their decision and the benefits obtain from the service. This is not true in health care often time the patient is operating at a distinct information disadvantage when they require health care services such as insurance. If

Enhancing Care Standards and Application - MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Enhancing Care Standards and Application. Answer: Introduction: This journal article elaborates the need for nursing research and the role it plays in enhancing better care standards and application for the affected patients and their families. The author is trying to illustrate how the research helps the nurses to know how to relate to the parents in a manner that reduces the undue stress that might come in due to the unfolding conditions. It helps them relate well with the patient and parents during the last few moments of life by making them opportunistic (Townsend, 2014). She then continues to expound how that feeling of making someone feel awesome in his or her last moments of life is good and you feel valued.in the several years of her duty she realizes that something they did before the evidence were done in the wrong way and found out the most appropriate ways. The main audience is the nurses and the physicians. The main aim is to motivate nurses to do more research so as to provide the best care standards and applications thereby saving lives and getting patients more healthy. She also talks about the need for nurses to work with the research team and biomedical engineers in their projects so that they find suitable equipment for the children (McNiff, 2016). Strengths The author has used an empathetic, enthusiastic and encouraging tone to illustrate how the nurses should interact with the patients and their families. The author is very objective while emphasizing on the significance of this article on the interaction between the nurses, patients and their families. The author has enhanced credibility in the article by providing clear facts and evidences that are significant to better health care facilities. Weaknesses The author has portrayed some sort of fallacious and overrated reasoning by trying to elaborate the kind of struggle nurses go through in their education. This website article illustrates the significance of engaging in nursing research, evidence-based practice to bring out quality improvement by changing previous procedures and adjusting protocols. The intended audience for this article is the perioperative nurses whereby they should identify a clinical dilemma, get appropriate literature that provides the best solution and puts the findings into practice. In case of a gap conduct feasible research and review the evidence occasionally and finally evaluate the outcome. For the perioperative nurses to ensure quality patient care they have to adjust their protocols and procedures through consistent reviews and evaluation (DiCenso, Guyatt, Ciliska, 2014). If after the reviews the outcome is still not as expected then they should consider comparing it with another source of literature which may be of help hence the process of continuous monitoring and review. The main aim of this article is to illustrate how perioperative nurses engage in nursing research to generate new ideologies that are useful in taking care of patients and bringing the best out of them worldwide (Parahoo, 2014). It also targets the people to embrace and give room for putting the evidence from the literature into practice. Strengths The author has used an informative and inspirational tone to explain the quality facts and evidence on how the nurses should engage in the research and use the existing literature for prolonged commitment. The author has enhanced integrity and feasibility in his statements by providing clear statements on how the nurses should engage in continuous monitoring and review for quality improvement in their practice. The author used a diplomatic tone to present a clear purpose of the article in the introduction. Weaknesses The author has engaged in some fallacious reasoning in some sections of the article which is very shallow for example how the nurses should react to cases that are not available in the existing literature. The author has used a very depressing way of presenting the facts in the article which leads becomes frustrating to the reader. Bibliography DiCenso, A., Guyatt, G., Ciliska, D. (2014). Evidence-Based Nursing-E-Book: A Guide to Clinical Practice. McNiff, J. (2016). You and your action research project. Routledge. Parahoo, K.. (2014). Nursing research: principles, process, and issues. Palgrave Macmillan. Townsend, M. C. (2014). Psychiatric mental health nursing: Concepts of care in evidence-based practice. FA Davis.

The Knights Templar

The Knights Templar is believed to be a religious military order that carried out its activities for approximately two centuries during the Middle Ages. The order, which grew rapidly in membership and power, had numerous different names and its members had numerous other titles. This Western Christian military order began as a small gathering of monks. As the order increased its membership across the European countries, its members were required to live certain lifestyles as Templars.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Knights Templar specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The order was mainly active from 1119 to 1314 and it received a blessing from the Pope in around 1129. The members of the order wore white mantles with a red cross and they were mainly involved in combat during the crusades. Its influence was felt throughout Christendom and non-combatant members of the order invested heavily in other sectors of the economy. This highly secretive organization had a role to offer protection to the pilgrims who were going to the Holy Land. The first crusade, which took place in 1099, made the city of Jerusalem to be detained. Thereafter, several religious pilgrimages were made to visit the Holy Places. As much as Jerusalem was safely guarded, the rest of the Outremer region was not since many pilgrims were robbed and murdered as they attempted to make their journey to the Holy Land. Following these threats, around 1119, the French knight Hugues de Payens and his next of kin Godfrey de Saint-Omer, decided to form a secret society to protect the pilgrims. When the veterans of the first crusade presented this proposal to King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, he allowed them to create the monastic order. They then established their headquarters at Al Alqsa Mosque, on Jerusalem’s Temple Mount, which was thought to be the ruins of the Temple of the Old Testament King Solomon. Because of this, the order was called the â€Å"Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon,† or â€Å"Templar† knights (Ralls, 147). When the organization began, it had only nine members and they were highly dependant on donations for carrying out of their activities. The activities of the members were confined to the vows of poverty, chastity, and allegiance to the Grand Master or president, and besides their typical dressing style, they wore chainmail while in battle (Williams, 104). They fearlessly fought many battles, for example, against the Saracens, in defense of what they believed in. The poor status that the warrior monks were living in did not continue for a long time. One of the relatives of the founding knights, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, managed to convince the Pope about its activities and the Church endorsed it in 1129. After this formal blessing, the Templars were now assured of the favor from the church. Therefore, it started to recruit more members and many people gave d onations to assist the warrior monks in protecting the pilgrims. Other kings also favored the Templars, for example, King Alfonso of Argon gave them thirty-three percent of his Spanish Empire before he died and in 1139, Pope Innocent II freed them from allegiance to the local rules. Since it had a clear objective and vast amount of resources, the influence of the Templars grew tremendously.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Templars owned land in various places across Europe and some joined them with the intention of getting rich. However, some people criticized them. The critics felt that their merciless killing of many individuals was not in line with Christian morals. Most of their meetings were held in secret and no one knew what transpired during these meetings. As the second crusade was about to take place, the Templars was the main army on the Christian side and they received s upport from all over Christendom. They bravely battled against the Muslim group called the Assassins, who fought more mercilessly than they did. As the battle continued, Christians were being defeated and in 1187, at the battle of Hattin, Islamic troops organized under Saladin greatly defeated the outnumbered Christians. After this defeat, the Templars were compelled to relocate to other cities. Some went to Acre and some fled to Limassol. They then decided to leave fighting and engage in other activities. They owned houses, carried out banking services to the travelers who feared being robbed, and escorted travelers using their fleets of ships. The order started to involve in politics where they served in various capacities in royal committees and councils. The responsibility of the order was split: towards the east, they still protected the pilgrims, and towards the west, they took other jobs. Thus, the Knights Templars increased in wealth and power. This is what is thought to hav e led to their dissolution. It is believed that the organization had great secrets, which could have greatly destabilized Christianity if they had been known. Others think that they possessed some great relic such as the crown of thorns, which Jesus wore on the cross, and the head of John the Baptist. It is unknown whether they truly possessed the artifacts. Philip IV of France envied the wealth of the order and he designed ways of eliminating the Templars (Steiner and Jonas, 54). Since he did not want to pay for a loan he had taken from them, he falsely accused them of treason, obscene rituals, homosexuality, heresy, and other crimes (Dafoe, para.14).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Knights Templar specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More When the charges were brought before Pope Clement V, because of Philip’s influence in the church, he allowed him to eliminate the members of the order. As the situation wor sened, on Friday, October 13 1307 (a day presently considered unlucky) Philip ordered for the arrest and detention of the Templars. Philip took control of most of their infrastructure. When the leader of the Templars, Jaques de Molay, was arrested and arraigned before a large multitude, he denounced all the confessions he had made earlier. On March 18, 1314, the last Grand Master was burnt alive and with his last words, he cursed the individuals who were responsible for his death. Within a year, both Philip IV and Pope Clement V. had passed on. The pope ordered the relocation of the wealth of the Templars to one of their rival orders, the order of Hospitallers. As the order of the Templars was dissolved, many of its members were absorbed by the order of Hospitallers. Currently, it is thought that the Templars are existing under another name. From the early eighteenth century, the Freemasons are believed to have incorporated a number of the Knights Templars symbols and ritual practic es. Many of these are present within a Masonic body called by other different names. This group currently functions either autonomously or as a component of the York Rite in most parts of the world. Works Cited Dafoe, Stephen.†Who were the Knights Templar.† TemplarHistory.com. 31 March 2010. Web. http://blog.templarhistory.com/2010/03/who-were-the-knights-templar-2/ Ralls, Karen. Knights Templar encyclopedia : the essential guide to the people, places, events, and symbols of the Order of the Temple. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books, 2007. Print. Steiner, Rudolf, and Margaret Jonas. The Knights Templar : the mystery of the warrior monks. Forest Row: Rudolf Steiner Press, 2007. Print.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Williams, Paul L. The complete idiot’s guide to the crusades. Indianapolis, Ind.: Alpha, 2002. Print. This essay on The Knights Templar was written and submitted by user Deborah Yates to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The turning point of war; Stalingrad battle

The turning point of war; Stalingrad battle Introduction The following essay will show how the Stalingrad battle, ordered by Hitler, was just but the turning point of war in World War II. This is because it was the end of a perception the world had, that Germany was the most powerful nation and could win every war. This will be into comparison with other instances when Hitler had attacked other parts of the world.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The turning point of war; Stalingrad battle specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Stalingrad Battle By mid 1942, Germany had cost Russians tremendous losses in terms of resources and work force given that the former had managed to kill over three million Russian soldiers and putting almost a similar number in captivity. Were it not for winter that pushed them back a bit, Germans had captured around ninety percent of Russian land and resources. By the beginning of summer, Hitler was again ready to attack Russia taki ng advantage of their weak status due to the tremendous losses he had cost them earlier on. The Stalingrad battle began in September 1942 during the winter, led by the â€Å"German commander of the sixth army, General Paulus and assisted by Fourth Panzer Army†; indeed, General Paulus was ordered by Hitler to take Stalingrad whose initial target was to capture the oil fields at Caucasus and their final target was Baku[1], which supplied seventy-one percent of all the oil the Soviets used during Word war II. Hitler’s other reason for capturing Stalingrad was due to its association with Russia as well as its connection to the south waterway. Thus by seizing Stalingrad, he would have paralyzed Russia by a great deal. All his interest on Stalingrad was accelerated by the fact that he was interested in damaging the name of his enemy Stalin who was the Soviet dictator and the city was named after his name. For a long time, the world was convinced that Germany had the best and strongest army, meaning they could win any war. The contrast of this began during Red Verdun war in 1918, two years before World War I ended[2]. In 1916, the cream of Germany army engaged French in a battle that failed terribly and since then, problems began since most its followers withdrew, divisions in the army began which finally collapsed, thus it had no future. Their enemies â€Å"Anglo-American-French bloc,† did not realize that they were approaching victory and they â€Å"continued believing that the German army was still the most powerful†[3]. The Stalingrad battle is different in nature from Red Verdun battle since it was the Germans last expression of a desperate struggle. The Soviet army won this battle and it was not only the turning point in the World War II but in the history of humankind.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Sixty five percent of all casualties in the war were Russian. It was Russia blood, machinery, resources and will which brought Hitler down. This is evident from the fact that, when Stalin appointed the two best military commanders, they vowed to either liberate Stalingrad or die with so much determination. Millions of people in the world followed the proceedings of Stalingrad carefully and every step the Soviet army made brought to them anxiety and stirred elation throughout the world[4]. After this defeat, the German army was in full retreat because it had lost a lot thus it was so weak such that it would take a long time to recover of which Russia was still advancing.. During his battles, before e.g. in Poland, Norway, Holland, Belgium, and France, where he definitely won, Hitler never dared to divide his attention but always directed all his concentration to one major objective. Contrary, during the Stalingrad battle, Hitler had divided attention because by the time he ordered attack of the city, som e groups of his army were still on their way to Caucasus and he was still preparing others for a succeeding attack of Siberia. It was therefore unwise to advance having left a major city unconquered[5]. Were Hitler not divided; his sixth army would not have been intertwined at Stalingrad. The city of Stalingrad was named after the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin who was a great enemy to Hitler. Germany almost overthrew Russia but they failed to exercise their authority. Hitler had dismissed his commander in chief and had taken the role himself without any consultation thus this confusion made it hard for the army to defeat Soviet, which was very organized and determined. Both armies were well equipped with soldiers, artillery guns, tanks, and planes thus, though Germany was thought to be stronger, they would capture areas during the day, but Russia would recapture them at night. Russian commander at the time was Marshal Zhukov. For them to be defeated, Germans were trapped in Stalingr ad city by a bulk of Zhukov army who had surrounded the city. Paulus could have been able to get out of the trap in the fist stages of Russians preparation but Hitler ordered them to fight up to the last bullet. When the momentum of the battle was fully with the Soviets, Hitler refused to let Paulus retreat since he never wanted to bear the blame.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The turning point of war; Stalingrad battle specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Their capture was accelerated by the fact that when they were surrounded in the city, it was hard for them to be supplied with food, ammunition, and heat since the winter temperatures were reading negative. Left with no choice, they surrendered to the Soviet army and were taken as prisoners. Germany began to retreat since their defeat in Stalingrad. This is because they lost labor when 91 000 Germans were taken prisoners and they lost their army and equipment m eaning they could not be able to fight the Soviet Union any more. This was the downfall of the world’s most powerful army, which had purposed to conquer the whole world thus their downfall was a complete liberation to the human race and a turning point in the World-war II. The battle of Stalingrad was the bloodiest battle in history and a sudden and widespread disaster of Germany. It was one of the most inhuman and cruel during the World War 2 since people fought literally from street to street and house to house[6]. It was a titanic battle where Stalin’s very name was a target, whereby, every street, house, and floor had to be painstakingly taken. It was the end of the last major gain of territory by the Axis on either front, from then on forward all the major attacks and offensives were a combined effort. Germany was a super power before 1914 but by 1945, it was a second world nation. This is because the invasion of the Soviet Union drained most of their resources. T he Germans were completely unprepared for war and if it were not for the long distances and terrible winters, the Soviet Union would have probably lost. The diaphanous numbers of work force and increasing production finally turned the tide. After Germanys failure to take Stalingrad, their Eastern front army was practically destroyed and they were forced to flee the Soviet Union[7]. This turned the War in putting the Russians on the offensive, which directly aided in the destruction and conquering of Germany by the Allied Forces throughout 1944 and 1945. Germany was, essentially, surrounded with the Americans and British in the West, and the Russians in the East. Before Stalingrad Hitler was still on course to win the war in the European theatre but afterwards, he was on the back foot considering the number of troops that were engaged and that died[8].Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Clearly, the battle was a major strategic mistake by Hitler since it wasted vital German resources. Hitler should have concentrated all forces in Southern Russia and used them to capture the vital oil fields of the Caucasus’s since oil was the lifeblood of all the mechanized tanks, planes, and trucks that the Soviet union used during World war II. In Stalingrad, the Germans were bogged down and lost all their previous advantages such as mobility, firepower and aircraft cover. Despite taking 90% of the city, the Russians held on, and since they well conversant with the winter season, they were able to encircle the city, rendering Germans helpless. Thousands of men had been trapped and surrounded and the first German field marshal had been taken prisoner in history – a major propaganda coup for Stalin and a slap in the face for Hitler. Had Soviets lost Stalingrad, they would have lost the war, and the raw material they needed would have fallen into the hands of Germans. This is because their target, Stalingrad and Baku were the major suppliers of oil and other necessities Soviet were using during the World War II. The Downfall of Hitler The downfall of Germany came from poor leadership. This is because when the Germans were attacking Russia for the second time, Hitler decided to taken up the role of his Generals and he consulted them no more. Earlier on, the German military had purposed to continue evading the already weak Russian army and to crush the remaining ones as well as capturing the Russia capital city. Furthermore, they were to capture the rich oil fields Caucasus as well as Stalingrad, the main industrial and transportation centre that was the main waterway of inner Russia. Their aim was not to occupy Stalingrad but to put it under heavy surveillance to ensure that no businesses were operating. The biggest mistake that Hitler did was his decision to remain in Stalingrad after being deceived by the fact that they had achieved their first objective as per their plans, thus he thought the Russians would not counter attack. His decision lead to heavy losses since he lost the southern campaign and his army was destroyed. All this was because of taking power to himself since he never listened to them and he insisted that they were to fight until the last bullet[9]. The other reason that leads to the downfall of Hitler and his army was divided interest. He was over confident due to his previous success in the western front and thus he decided to conquer the outstretched Soviet Union in three months. This made him disperse his army through the large socialist nation since he wanted to achieve his objectives very fast and still conquer Moscow to the north and Persian Gulf to the south. At the same time, he had dismissed his commander-in-chief and he was still directing a Japanese fascist that was preparing to attack Siberia after the fall of Stalingrad. All these tasks divided his attention making it hard for him to perfect the matter at hand. At the end of that summer, Hitler had not achieved any of his objectives since he was too ambitious. He was not able to penetrate the oil fields nor did he capture Stalingrad, thus his army was left unable to advance or to retreat causing immense losses[10]. When Russians realized that it was so evident from the look of things that they would loose their city to Germans, Stalin came up with a very brilliant strategy that drew Hitler towards destruction[11]. He realized that the only thing that would save Russia was a good leadership. He therefore chose two superb commanders with highest military skills and strong will i.e. General Zhukov at national level and Vasily Chuikov at local level. They vowed to either defend the city or die. Since Germany, leadership was weak and Hitler had already dismissed his commander in chief, this counter attack swept them off the ground and the result was that hundreds of thousands of their military men were killed though the dam ages and killings were both way traffic. Conclusion The Soviet Union victory against Germany was the beginning of liberation of humankind from the hands of a dictator Hitler. The Germans were thought to be the most powerful nation in the world and even at the verge of their defeat; they still under estimated the Russian resources. The Russians did their preparation for the counter attack very carefully, putting every detail of their internal organization in perspective, as they knew that a slight mistake would bestow victory upon their rivals. On the other hand, by the time, Germans realized the ability in Russia, there was little left to do apart from surrendering. Furthermore, the nature of dictatorship in Hitler cost Germany a great deal since he dismissed the opinions of professionals making it hard for them to operate. Actually, after they were defeated, Hitler announced a mourning day to accomplish his blame game over his army commander Paulus. Apart from its losses, German ar my lost its formidable image of being unbeatable. Out of the hundreds of thousands of Germans militia who went for war, only five thousand went home safe. Indeed, around three hundred thousand soldiers from Germany died in Stalingrad thus indicating how terribly the Germans had lost the battle to the Russians. The Soviet victory boosted their morale a great deal and fought with vigor until the end of World War II, which lasted almost three years since the defeat of Germany. Bibliography Anon. The Battle of Stalingrad, N.d. Web. Duiker, William and Spielvogel, Jackson. World History. NY: Cengage Learning, 2008. Web. Hansen, Valerie and Curtis, Kenneth. Voyages in the World History. NY: Cengage Learning, 2008. Web. Trueman, Chris. The Battle of Stalingrad, N.d. Web. Tse-tung, Mao. The Turning Point in World War II, 2004 Web. Footnotes Anon. The Battle of Stalingrad. N.d. Mao Tse-tung, The Turning Point in World War II. 2004. William, Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel. World History. M ao Tse-tung, 2004. Mao Tse-tung, 2004. Valerie Hansen, and Kenneth, Curtis. Voyages in the World History. William, Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel, 2010. Valerie Hansen, and Kenneth, Curtis, 2010. Anon, N.d. Mao Tse-tung, 2004. Chris Trueman. The Battle of Stalingrad. N.d.

The Difference Between a Commonwealth and a State

The Difference Between a Commonwealth and a State Have you ever wondered why some states have the word commonwealth in their name? Some people believe there is a distinction between states and states that are also commonwealths but this is a misconception. When used in reference to one of the fifty states there is no difference between a commonwealth and a state. There are four states which are officially known as commonwealths: Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Virginia, and Massachusetts. The word appears in their full state name and in documents like the state constitution. Some places, like Puerto Rico, are also referred to as a Commonwealth, where the term means a location that is voluntarily united with the U.S. Why Are Some States Commonwealths? To Locke, Hobbes, and other 17th-century writers, the term commonwealth meant an organized political community, what we today call a state. Officially Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Virginia, and Massachusetts are all commonwealths. This means that their full state names are actually The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and so on. When Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Virginia, and Massachusetts became part of the United States, they merely took the old form of state in their title. Each of these states was also a former British Colony. After the Revolutionary War, having Commonwealth in the state name was a sign that the former colony was now ruled by a collection of its citizens. Vermont and Delaware both use the term commonwealth and state interchangeably in their constitutions. The Commonwealth of Virginia will also sometimes use the term State in an official capacity. This is why there is both a Virginia State University and a Virginia Commonwealth University. Much of the confusion surrounding the term commonwealth probably comes from the fact that a commonwealth has a different meaning when its not applied to a state. Today, Commonwealth also means a political unit having local autonomy but voluntarily united with the United States. While the US has many territories there are only two commonwealths;  Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands, a group of 22 islands in the Western Pacific ocean. Americans who travel between the continental U.S. and its commonwealths do not need a passport. However, if you have a layover that stops in any other nation, you will be asked for a passport even if you do not leave the airport. Differences Between Puerto Rico and the States While residents of Puerto Rico are  American citizens they have no voting representatives in Congress or the Senate. They are also not allowed to vote in the Presidential elections. While Puerto Ricans do not have to pay income tax they do pay many other taxes. Which means that, like the residents of Washington D.C., many Puerto Ricans feel they suffer from taxation without representation because while they do send representatives to both Houses, their reps cannot vote. Puerto Rico is also not eligible for federal budget money allocated to the States. There is much debate around whether  Puerto Rico should become a state or not.

Computer Networking and Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7000 words

Computer Networking and Management - Essay Example However, this is a rare event. The following illustration shows the routing and remote access procedure of the NAT service. You can see that the NAT router sits in the middle of a conversation between the public and the private machine. The packets are translated and then sent to the destination computer at the public end of the equation. The response of the turns, and the route also translates from the public network and returns the response back to the requesting client at the local end. The workstations obtain their IP addresses in the range allowed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). IANA is responsible for allocating public addresses that are guaranteed to be globally unique on the Internet. However, there is an ever decreasing availability of Ipv4 addresses available as thousands and thousands of additional IP addresses are required daily. In the longer term the development of IPv6 16 byte addresses should resolve this problem. Another factor about IPv6 addresses is that they are expressed in hexadecimal notation with ':' as separators, rather than the current '.' notation of the IPv4 addressing system. The workaround available at the moment on small networks is to reuse IPv4 addresses. Workstations obtain their reusable (i.e. dynamic) IP addresses using a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol server (DHCP). The DHCP automatically configures the IP address for every host on the network, thus ensuring that each host has a valid, unique IP address. The DHCP automatically reconfigures IP addresses on the fly, i.e. as and when hosts may or may not be present. One of the major advantages of DHCP is that it can save a network administrator many hours of tedious configuration work. DHCP allows individual computers on a TCP/IP network to obtain their configuration information. Specifically, this is their IP address from the server. The DHCP server keeps track of which IP addresses of already been assigned so that when a computer requests an IP address, the DHCP server will offer it an IP address that is not already in use. One of the advantages of an NAT is that firewalls use this method to hide the actual IP address of a host from outside world. In this situation the NAT device must use of a globally unique IP address to represent itself to the Internet. It obtains its global address for communicating with the outside world from the firewall. This firewall address is the address to which forwarded and received packet travel to and from the Internet. Because NAT uses a global IP address for its local network machines, it assists with the general problem of IPv4 addresses being allocated exponentially. The NAT device keeps track of the requesting hosts IP address. It hides this host address and provides its own firewall address to the Internet. The response is received back to the firewall address, and then the NAT router looks of this information about the original request and forwards the information back to the correct host on the internal network. Task3: A) There

Typography in Business & Bauhaus Manifesto Dissertation

Typography in Business & Bauhaus Manifesto - Dissertation Example The document; ‘Using styles Training’ could appear as illustrated below after the effect of topography on it: How to Format Your Word Document Using â€Å"Styles† Microsoft Word has a tool known as styles, which help in formatting a document. Where is Styles found? The styles tool is in the Home ribbon of Microsoft Word. Styles functions. It allows the user to classify certain formatting characteristics as a specific â€Å"style†. How to use Styles. For example, if one wishes to have all Headers in a document to be Arial, size 18, and bold, one could create a style which encompasses these formatting characteristics. This style can then be applied to any other words in the document with one click, rather than having to manually format each word. Design entails making an assemblage of concepts and creating a format that reflects a visual solution that depicts functional and artistic usefulness. Design is more about transformation of ideas and words to achieve a desired result in the mind of an audience. The principles of design offer vast possibilities in crafting creative solutions. Good design would be flexible and reflect content so as to give an effective visual communication. The Bauhaus manifesto expressed the opinion of design as primarily involving industry and mass production as opposed to individual craftsmanship. That the definitive aim of all creativity is building. The manifesto refutes the existence of professional art. Bauhaus philosophy maintains that design is relevant only when someone is using it.

Effects of Drinking Alcohol Essay Example for Free

Effects of Drinking Alcohol Essay Drinking alcohol is like taking a drug. It is a form of drug abuse, and drug addiction. This is a worldwide problem that many people are involved in. There are good effects of alcohol if it is in small amounts, and in moderation. On the other hand there are bad short and long term effects. The effects that a person will get are all based on certain factors like, how much and how often alcohol is consumed, the age of the person, when the person started and how long they have been drinking for, gender, their family history and last but not least based on their health. Lately scientists have been saying that a little bit of alcohol with dinner is not only okay but it is also good for you. This is true in moderation. They say that if you drink a small amount of alcohol it will help you sleep. Also if you drink a moderate amount every day it can help your health in the long run. A moderate amount is considered to be 1 drink for women daily and 2 drinks for men daily. This can help bring your HDL level up, which helps protect your heart against disease that causes heart attacks. Also a moderate amount of alcohol everyday can lower your risk of developing diabetes by increasing your insulin sensitivity. It can also raise ‘good cholesterol’ levels. In the long run they have said that for women it helps keep the mind sharp in later years. Now when they talk about having a helpful amount of alcohol they mean small doses of it a day with a meal, so that the absorption rate is slowed down. Now this doesn’t mean that a person should start drinking for the benefits that it gives, it just means that if you drink in moderation already it could be slightly helpful to you in the future. If you take advantage of that and drink in excess there are effects that you should be aware of. Contrary to some beliefs, alcohol is a depressant. This is the opposite of a stimulator, meaning that it calms you down, and slows down some organs in your body. Alcohol therefore has short term effects on your body. With about 0. 05% blood- alcohol level you start to get dulled judgment and your inhibitions are released. After that stage you start to get clumsy and will have slurred speech with about a 0. 10% blood-alcohol level. Once you come close to unconsciousness you have a 0. 30% blood-alcohol level. After that point it starts to get dangerous, because you can go into a coma at 0. 45%, and then at 0. 70% the brain starts to shut off and stop controlling things like breathing, and your heart, which will end up in death. These facts are not meant to scare you, because most people can’t drink past 0. 40% because they are asleep. Some other short term effects include blackouts, where you can’t remember what happened, and insomnia, where you can’t fall asleep. While you are drinking you will be less alert, less aware of your surroundings, lose your muscular coordination, have difficulty walking, have blurred vision, and have slow reaction times. This can lead to accidents, injuries, and death. Also after drinking you may get a hangover the next morning which will include effects like headaches, nausea, thirst, heartburn, dizziness, and fatigue. If you are not careful with the amount of alcohol that you drink you can get some bad side-effects. Once you start to become addicted to alcohol you are considered an alcoholic. There are many long term effects that come along with drinking lots of alcohol for a prolonged amount of time. Drinking alcohol like this will damage your organs, like the brain, liver, stomach, intestines, and heart. The brain is affected, because brain cells die which leads to memory loss, confusion, learning difficulties, problems with attention, and brain disorders. The liver is effected, because cancer can develop there, and also in the mouth and throat. The stomach may acquire ulcers. From prolonged drinking you can have a stroke, or have heart failure. The nervous system can also get damaged, and when this happens the person will get physical and behavioral problems. Impaired vision can also be a result of this type of drinking. It also affects your health. One reason for this is because alcohol is high in calories which can lead to obesity. Another reason is that poor nutrition normally comes side by side with lots of drinking. This could be because the alcohol interferes with the absorption and storage of the vitamins you get. Also the water soluble minerals get lost because of the increased urination that happens. Because of the lowered health you also have a lowered resistance to infections. Some other less serious effects of prolonged drinking are vomiting, profuse sweating, hallucinations, tremors, and sleep disturbances. All of these problems can quickly lead to injury to oneself or to others, violence, and death. Also it leads to a loss of employment, and a loss of family life. If you are addicted to alcohol or drink a lot of alcohol for a long period of time you will shorten your life span by about 12 years, and get a lot of serious side-effects. In conclusion alcohol can affect your life in a good or bad way depending on how you drink, how often you drink, and how much you drink. It is better to drink in moderation, and responsibly. This normally means drinking only 1 to 2 glasses a day with a meal, and to also have a healthy diet that goes along with that. Otherwise the health benefits of drinking alcohol are gone, and replaced with some horrible side-effects. Everyone can make their own decision on what drinking in moderation is and what drinking responsibly means, but everyone should be informed with the facts.

Lilys Choice in The House of Mirth Essay -- House Mirth Essays

Lily's Choice in The House of Mirth      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Near the beginning of The House of Mirth, Wharton establishes that Lily would not indeed have cared to marry a man who was merely rich: "she was secretly ashamed of her mothers crude passion for money" (38). Lily, like the affluent world she loves, has a strange relationship with money. She needs money to buy the type of life she has been raised to live, and her relative poverty makes her situation precarious. Unfortunately, Lily has not been trained to obtain money through a wide variety of methods. Wharton's wealthy socialites do not all procure money in the same way: money can be inherited, earned working in a hat shop, won at cards, traded scandalously between married men and unmarried women, or speculated for in the stock market. For Lily, the world of monetary transactions presents formidable difficulties; she was born, in a sense, to marry into money, and she cannot seem to come to it any other way. She is incapable of mastering the world of ec onomic transactions, to the point that a direct exchange is repulsive to her highly specialized nature. Finally, these exchanges and the obstacles they present prove to be the end of her, and Wharton's text joins naturalism's Darwinian rules to an economic world. Whether Lily's death is accidental or a suicide does not really matter in Wharton's vision, because the choice facing Lily at the end of the novel--to make a transaction or to make a transaction--necessitates her death. Near the end of the novel, Wharton's protagonist must make a choice--but both options are part of the environment in which Lily has not evolved to survive. In Lily's attempt at wage-earning and her moral dilemma regarding Rosedale's marria... ...1975. Lyde, Marilyn Jones.   Edith Wharton, Convention and Morality in the Work of a Novelist.   Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959. Miller, Mandy.   Edith Wharton Page.   19 Nov. 2002  Ã‚  Ã‚   <http://www.Kutztown.edu/faculty/Reagan.Wharton.html>. Pizer, Donald.   "The Naturalism of Edith Wharton's The House of Mirth."   Twentieth Century Literature 41.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1995): 241-8. Rehak, Melanie. Rev. of The House of Mirth, by Edith Wharton.   Amazon.com 28 Oct. 2002  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  <http://www.amazon.com/execs/obidos/ASIN/055321320/hallbook/>.   Ruschmann, Paul.   "Climbing the Social Ladder...In the Wrong Direction."   Rev. of The House of Mirth, by Edith Wharton.   Epinions.com 28 Oct. 2002   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   <http://www.epinions.com/./book-review-6AF6-7A25B6D-39DA>. Wharton, Edith. The House of Mirth. (1905) New York: Signet,. 1998.   

African American Experience Essay

African Americans lived differently than white men did during the turn of the century. They faced many problems within the society. Some of the issues they faced were out of their hands. Although things were not the greatest all the time, there were supporters and organizations that they could turn to. Along with these organizations they had leaders that tried to help the race. Many African Americans became successful in the late 1920’s, and still to this day there are many African Americans that are successful. During the time period around the late 1870’s through the 1920’s many African Americans did not have good jobs. The majority of African Americans lived in the southern states. Many were sharecroppers who worked the land and gave the land owners part of the profit from the crops. African Americans were cheated out of money through this process most of the time. The African Americans did receive the right to vote before white women. African Americans faced many issues throughout these years. A series of laws were passed in the South to keep the African Americans at the lowest point possible in society. These laws were known as the Jim Crow Laws. Shortly after these laws were established segregation became legalized, and black codes that were abolished during the Reconstruction resurfaced and were supported in Plessy vs. Ferguson. This lead to African Americans being looked down on and equality far from reach. African Americans were not allowed to go to the same schools or drink out of the same water fountains as whites; they were even told where they could and could not live. This put a strain on the race and the way they had to live. Many African Americans were also stripped of their voting rights. In 1890 a poll tax was enforced. This meant that poor people, of both races, were not able to vote simply because they could not afford to. They also instituted a literacy test where you had to show that you were able to read and write. Many times African American college graduates failed the test, yet illiterate whites were some how able to pass. The responses to these issues were not good. They did not understand why they should be treated any differently from the whites. This led to riots and outburst throughout the country. After this, African Americans became the center of violent and cruel attacks. Lynchings were on an all time high in the late 1800s with more than a hundred African Americans being lynched per year. Law enforcement usually did nothing to stop these terrible acts and sometimes even participated. African Americans fled to the North during this time in search of better jobs and home lives for their families. Many organizations were formed during this time in hopes of ceasing the violence and bringing America to equality. Two of the largest influences were Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois. Both of these men had separate approaches with the end result being the same. Washington thought that equality would be achieved, but it would be a very slow and ongoing process. He wanted to concentrate on getting African Americans better paying jobs and a greater education. Du Bois believed that you should demand equality and stop at nothing to get it. He wanted better education, equal rights, and suffrage. Another well known advocate for African Americans was Ida B. Wells. She founded the anti-lynching movement that came into existence in the 1880s. This group set out to stop the violent acts aimed at African Americans. Wells’ goal was to make lynching a federal crime and keep the local law agencies from allowing and participating in hate crimes. White women from the North and some others supported this movement, but it wasn’t until the 1930’s that lynching became a federal crime. For a time, Wells published a newspaper, Free Speech. An angry mob of people burned down her office in Memphis, Tennessee and forced her to leave town. In 1891, Wells supported the strike of black cotton pickers. She was dismayed when fifteen of the cotton pickers were lynched. The whites sent a strong message that they were not going to conform to her desires and accept the equality of the African Americans for some time. With the end of the Civil War, the African Americans received freedom from slavery and gains some rights but lost many of those same rights a mere twenty years later . They had sacrificed much and did not give them up easily. Even though they were often defeated in court and often threatened with violence, a visionary group of leaders laid the foundation for the future successes of the civil rights movement. They founded important educational institutions and organizations to fight for civil rights and cultivated both a new generation of leaders and a growing number of writers, artists, and professionals who embodied Du Bois’s idea of a ‘talented tenth’ and who became increasingly active and effective in the 1920s. Almost a century later, African Americans are better accepted in society than ever before. There is less of a double standard and more equality thanks to the brave men and women who came before and strove to encourage, nurture, and raise their children to grow up in a more civil environment.

Is3220 Term Paper

1. Preface The contemporary school of thought in service science is currently dominated by the notion of service-centric services (Lusch & Vargo, 2008), whereby it is believed that the end users are the determinant of value of a given service and co-producing a service with the end users would enhance the value of the service. A main assumption made by this school of thought is that all aspect of services, from creation to delivery process, is the domain of the service providers. However, the emergence of disruptive technologies such as the internet, social media, etc has reduced the operational barriers, empowering the end users to become services provider themselves. This empowerment has led to the creation of what is known as user generated services. Such services potentially challenge the complementary notion of service-centric services. Hence, in my term paper, I shall examine how user generated services has affected the service dynamic between the service providers and the end users, using the mobile phone service industry as a backdrop. Firstly, I would define what is exactly is user generated services. Then, I will discuss about user generated services in the mobile phone service industry. Last but not least, I would explore how mobile phone service providers can leverage user generated services, regardless of the service model that the service providers adopt. 2. User generated services 2. 1 Background Contemporary services are usually designed around integration within the scope of provider’s business process. However, advancement in information technology has allowed for the development of solutions that facilitates information exchange and collaboration between individuals. With the increased ease in information exchange and collaboration from multiple sources, the end user now has the access and capability to generate user-generated content (UGC) that suits their needs. But consequently, the rise in user-generated content generation has introduced the demand for more specialized services and processes that uses user-generated contents. This present a limitation for service producers who might lack the ability or will to do so. . 2 Introduction Contrary to the suggestion of its name, user generated services are the result of re-composing existing service into newer form of services by the end users, who might play no part in the original services that comprised the new service. (Zhao & Laga & Crespi, 2009). Hence, instead of having a front stage and back stage controlled by the service p roviders (regardless the end user’s level of participation in the co-creation of the service), end users, not the service providers, serves as the main providers of the services 2. The unique taxonomies of user generated services a) Multi-tier service stage model As mentioned, user generated services generally follows the principles of service composition, where basic services are integrated together to form a unique service offering. Figure 1 show the translation service process of a written article into Russian language and the publication of the Russian language version of the article. However, the final product is the result of engaging two independent services from two different services provider, namely the article writer and translation engine. Thus, user generated service follows a multi-tier services model that grant user the flexibility to choose their intermediaries. An advantage is that user can restructure the final service product without need to meddle the upstream parties’ service stage. Back Stage – Document article process Back Stage – Translation process Article writer Translation Engine Front Stage – Translation Interface Front Stage – Create Article Line of Visibility Translation of Article Back Stage – Translation of article into Russian Line of Interaction Front Stage – Published Translated Article Fig 1. An example of the service configuration of a user generated service b) The presence of a Facilitating platform In user generated services, the user creation process is facilitated through a platform that allows them access to necessary service enablers required to generate customized services. An example would be Yahoo! Pipes, a platform that provides a GUI frontend for creating Web-based apps that aggregates web feeds, web pages. (Nikolaos & Vassilios & Konstantino, 2009). The necessity of such a platform boils down to two reasons. Firstly, it enables and ensures interoperability between the various services. Therefore, the user needs not worry about the compatibility of the services components in the service creation process. Secondly, it reduces the complexity of creating new services for the user, who might have differing technical capabilities, as the implementation details are encapsulated by the platform. C) End user as the ultimate service value creator The main value proposition of user generated is that the end user has the final say in creating the service, instead of being service consumers or co-creator. Correspondingly, the original service providers are reduced to a role of value co-creator or suppliers. This arrangement allows end users to customize the original service, thus enabling the service to serve this group of end users which otherwise the original service would not have served 3. User generated services in the mobile phone service industry For user generated services to exist, the three following conditions must be fulfilled. Firstly, the industry must encourage the generation of UGC. Secondly, service providers should allow end user access to part of their service channel/process. Lastly, the creation process of UGS should be intuitive for the end users. With that, let us look at how user generated service fits into the mobile phone service industry and some future challenges that awaits user generated services in the mobile phone service industry. a) Background of the mobile phone service industry As recently as a decade ago, the service’s proposition of mobile phone service providers was simple: Providing reliable voice communication for its subscribers. However, mobile penetration rate is reaching near 100% in Asia-Pacific region as of 2010. Also, a study done by OVUM Inc predicted that voice services revenues generated in the Asia-Pacific will drop to US$176 billion in 2015, from $US182 billion in 2009. The same study also projected that revenue from mobile data services would increasing to US$133 billion in 2015 from $US84 million in 2009, thereby increasingly become the main revenue driver for mobile phone service provider. John, 2007) Hence, mobile phone service providers around the Asia-Pacific region are scrambling to reposition their service proposition around access to the data content and electronic services (E. g SMS, web content, and internet banking services) to take advantage of the likely growth in mobile data services revenues while arresting the effects of the slowing growth in voice services revenues. In the drive to increase the percentage of revenue from data services, mobile service providers have tried facilitat ing and incorporating various service innovations, one of them being user generated service (UGS). ) The impact of UGS on the service dynamics of the mobile phone service industry The appearance of User generated services in mobile phone service, made possible by the increased convergence of mobile phone and Web 2. 0 technology, are a reflection of the immensely popular collaborative and social networking trends originating from the internet. Hence, USG has redefined the paradigm of some service innovation dimensions in mobile service industry i) Concept/Client Interface Traditional service-oriented service concepts embrace enhancing and extending the value proposition of a service through value co-creation. For example, services like uploading and sharing of mobile phone made video makes it easy for user to share self-generated content, thus positioning the mobile phone as a lifestyle product instead of a mere communication device. However, user generated service allows end users to define their own service proposition and ultimately, their own service. For example, tourists in Singapore could self initialize their own tour in Singapore by relying on a combination of mobile services such as Google maps, Iris, Singapore Guide, etc without relying on the service provided by a tour operator i) Delivery/Technology The traditional service configuration of service-oriented services is mainly shaped by the concept of service composition, whereby the service providers can combine various per-defined service and technology to deliver a single customized service to its user through its channel. An example would be Google mobile, a mobile portal which primarily offer the same range of services of its web counterpart. However, the service configuration and delivery is limited to company resources, strategy and legal issues. Facilitating UGS overcomes the problem as the user now can select the technologies that comprised of the services and chose the mode of service delivery, without the limitation of legality, economy of scale, etc. For example, the iPhone Yahoo! Pipes allows property agents to integrate a classified listing service such as Craiglist mobile and a mapping service such Google map to provide a service where user of iPhone can located an area on the map provided by the service and select the area to see what kind of property is listed for sales in the area and the location of each of the property listed. ) Challenge of implementing and sustaining UGS in the mobile phone service industry Despite the potential UGS can offer to the mobile phone service industry, UGS is still an emerging value proposition that still faces teething issues that could slower its ascent into a viable service model for the mobile phone service industry i) Difficulty in implementing User Generated Services Regardless of any service philosophy, service value creation requires the value creator to have the necessary resources and competencies to create and deliver the values of the services. In the context of the mobile phone service industry, although more service providers have open up access to essential resources like their application programming interface (API), the resources are more geared toward the traditional service providers (E. g Professional mobile application company) as integrating the resource into existing service still requires technical knowledge (E. g Knowledge of Google map Api for an location based web service). Not all end user possesses the knowledge and expertise to customize and integrate the service into their existing services. i) Difficulty in Ensuring Service Quality The end users service providers are at the mercy of the providers of the service components as they do not have actual ownership of the service components that comprised of their customized services. For example, when service components (E. g Google MAP API) are modified at the owner’s (Google) end, mobile location based application which functionalities that depends on Google Map might not be delivered optimally or even be delivered at all as the functionalities might have depend on certain features of the pre-modified Google API. Thus, end user has less control over the service quality of their service unlike their conventional counterparts. 4. How to take advantage of user generated service: From the prospective of existing service provider It is pretty certain that user generated services to be relevant in the mobile phone industry for the foreseen future. Thus, mobile service provider should evaluate their suitability in adopting the user generated services and adapt the model according to their strategy. Below are some suggestions that existing mobile service provider can adopt to take advantage of user generated service to drive their existing and future service offerings. i) Simplify the service generation process for the user As discussed earlier, not all end user possesses the necessary knowledge and expertise to customize and integrate a given service into their existing services. Moreover, it is very difficult to simplify the actual user service generating process as service generating tools (MashMaker) aiming at user is still at its infancy and is not exactly user-centric. Instead leaving it to the user to generate their service, it would be better to simplify the process by facilitating the service creation process. For example, the mobile service provider could provide a list of mobile services and help the customer to mix and match the services together to generate a service that is unique for them ii) Bridging the communication gap between the actual service creator and the end user Currently, mobile service providers engage their end user through indirect communication channel (E. customer relationship management system, user profiling/tracking). Though such arrangements has given service providers valuable information on the end user, the information are often interpreted by the service provider from the service providers’ point of view, thus leading to potential situations where the eventually service value proposition of the service does not match what the end users wants. This misalignment could drive end-users to drop the given service and replace the existing service component with another competing service. To mitigate the possibility of such misalignment, the service should considering sponsoring a common platform where the end user service providers can directly communicate and contribute to the development of the various services that are the composition of the user often customized service while giving the service provider a channel for them to influence the end users. . Conclusion User generated services is certainly an interesting service proposition in the mobile phone service industry as it allows the end users to develop their own customized mobile services and in the process, serving them with the services they have created themselves It solve the problem of certain customer segments not being served as they might have requirements that the service providers cannot fulfil due to real life business constraints. However, the existing way of generating user generated service is too cumbersome and uncertain for it to be the golden standard of service delivery. Nevertheless, the service provider should look beyond just co-creating service values with the end users and instead, look at end user as strategic partner in a ecology that mutually sustain the whole hyper network of service-derived services. 6. References Abdallah Namoune, Usman Wajid, Nikolay Mahendjiev. â€Å"Composition of Interactive Service-based Applications by End Users†. ICSOC/ServiceWave Workshops, Stockholm, Sweden, 2009 Christian S. Jensen, Carmen Ruiz Vicente, Rico Wind, â€Å"User-Generated Content: The Case for Mobile Services,† Computer, vol. 41, no. 12, pp. 116-118, Dec. 2008, John Delaney , â€Å"User-generated content opportunities for wireless operators†, Communicate, Vol 36, 2007. Retrieved from: http://www. huawei. com/file/download. do? f=3056 Nikolaos Loutas, Vassilios Peristeras, Konstantinos A. Tarabanis, â€Å"Rethinking the Semantic Annotation of Services. ICSOC/ServiceWave Workshops, Stockholm, Sweden, 2009 Robert F. Lusch, Stephen L. Vargo, G Wessels, â€Å"Towards a Conceptual Foundation for Service Science: Contributions from Service-Dominant Logic,† IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 47, No. 1, 2008. Wai Kin Victor Chan, Cheng Hsu , â€Å"A Science of Scaling: Service Hyper-Networks†, Service Science, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2009. ZZ. Zhao, N. Laga, N. Crespi, â€Å"A Survey Of User Generated Service†, Intern ational Conference on Network Infrastructure and Digital Content, Beijing, China, 2009.

The eNotes Blog Rumors of Doom for ISBNNumbers

Rumors of Doom for ISBNNumbers Since its invention in 1965, booksellers have depended on the ISBN system used internationally to  facilitate  the  distribution  of books and to track sales.   However, the digital revolution is changing even this long-standing publishing tradition.   eBooks do not need, and mostly do not have, ISBN numbers (the  cost  of acquiring an ISBN ranges from $25 to $250). In a world that has become increasingly less analog, the perceived need to have a universal system is rapidly diminishing.   Instead of one global identification system, there are now many.   According to  The Economist, Amazon has introduced the Amazon Standard Identification Number (ASIN). Digital Object Identifiers (DOI) tag articles in academic journals. Walmart has a Universal Product Code (UPC) for everything it stocks- including books. Humans are also getting labels: the Open Researcher and Contributor ID system (ORCID) identifies academics by codes, not their names. And ISBNs are not mandatory at Google Books. This breaking up of the system has resulted in less-than-reliable numbers when it comes to tracking the growth of self-publishing. Self-published writers are booming; sales of their books increased by a third in America in 2011, the article continues. Digital self-publishing was up by 129%. This ends the distinction between publisher, distributor and bookshop, making ISBNs less necessary. However, as Porter Anderson points out in  Publishing Perspectives,  that number estimating eBook growth at 129% is simply a guess. No actually knows the true number due to the anonymity that foregoing ISBNs affords. Anderson also points out that boom in self-publishing does not always equate in success for authors. Theres more writing out there, yes, but just how fruitful is self-publishing for writers? Without hard data, it is impossible to say for sure. Should we be concerned about this or not? I think the question Anderson poses is a good one:   [I]s there something inherently wrong - or somehow too determinedly journalistic - in wanting to be able to quantify, categorize, and track the progress of the industry through the â€Å"tagging† of its output? What do you think?   Is time to end ISBNs?

Steps to Effective Lesson Planning for Grades 7â€12

Steps to Effective Lesson Planning for Grades 7–12 Writing lesson plans ensures that you are addressing the requirements of the curriculum, effectively planning teaching time, and using the best strategies to address student needs.  Ã‚  Your school district may already have a template, or you can use a general lesson plan template as you work through creating your lesson plans. Before Writing the Plan Begin with the end in mind. Ask the following questions: What do you want the students to learn from this lesson?What state or national standards are you meeting?What does the curriculum from your state or your district require?What are the needs of your students in meeting the requirements of the curriculum? Once youve determined this, write a quick description and list out your objectives for the assignment. Ensure that you will provide extra support to students who do not have the skills to meet the objective. Keep a vocabulary list that uses academic vocabulary words  that you can access as you write out your lesson plan procedure. Additionally, decide content vocabulary students will need as well. This will help you remember terms that you need to make sure the students understand as they work through the lesson. Create a materials list and add to this as you write your procedure so that you know exactly what you will need including audiovisual equipment, the number of copies youll need, other required materials, and even the page numbers from books you plan to cover. Creating the Lesson Plan Determine if the lesson is new learning or a review. Decide how you will begin the lesson. For example, decide whether to use a simple oral explanation for the lesson or a pre-activity to determine what students know. Decide the method(s) you will use to teach the content of your lesson. For example, does it lend itself to independent reading, lecture, or whole group discussion? Will you target instruction for certain students by grouping? Sometimes it is best to use a combination of these methods, varying teaching techniques: beginning with a few minutes of lecture- such as five minutes- followed by an activity in which students apply what you taught or a short whole-group discussion to ensure that the students understand what you have taught them. Decide  how you will have the students practice the skill/information you just taught them. For example, if you have taught them about the use of a map in a particular country or town, envision how you will have them practice this information to truly gain an understanding of the material. You might have them complete independent practice, use a whole-group simulation, or allow students to work cooperatively on a project. The key is to get students to practice the information you have presented. Once you determine how students will practice the skills that you taught them, decide how you will know that they understood what was taught. This could be a simple show of hands or something more formal as a 3-2-1 exit slip. Sometimes a game activity can be an effective way to review, or if the technology is available, a kahoot! quiz. Review the draft lesson plan to determine any accommodations you need to make for your class including accommodations for English-language learners and special education students. Once you have completed your lesson plan, include  any details such as  homework assignments. Make any copies of handouts needed and gather materials for the lesson. Tips and Hints Always start with the final assessment, showing that students understand the material you have presented. Knowing the assessments will leave you  better able to focus the lesson on what is essential. Additionally: Refer regularly to curriculum documents and pacing guides.Try not to rely solely on your textbook for lessons, but do ensure that you evaluate any other source you might use like other books, other teachers, written resources, and internet web pages.Some school districts require standards to be listed on the lesson plans while others do not. Make sure that you check with your school district. Always overplan: It is much easier to cut things out of a plan or continue it the next day than fill 15 or 20 extra minutes. If possible, connect homework to real life. This will help reinforce what the students should be learning.

Rappin'it up Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Rappin'it up - Coursework Example Advantages and disadvantages are straightforwardly represented in the dimension of this question. Passage One names â€Å"Alcoholic Beverage Advertising Should Be Restricted† is introduced by Laurie Leiber contains a number of advantages concerning the question of restricting advertising of alcoholic beverages. He suggests the idea that alcohol-industry representatives usually claims that there are no connection between usage of alcohol and its advertising. Still, there are a number of facts that prove an opposing idea. Leiber refers to researches that demonstrate the harmful connection between alcohol usage and its advertisements. He introduces the investigation by Joel W. Grube and Lawrence Wallack that suggests the idea â€Å"that awareness of TV beer commercials leads to favorable beliefs about drinking in children 10 to 12 years old and increases their intention to drink as adults† (Leiber, n.p.). In addition, the information about alcohol-related motor-vehicle deaths â€Å"with quarterly measures for broadcast advertising in 75 media markets over a three-yea r period† (Leiber, n.p.) is admonished the tendency of supporting the restriction of alcohol beverages advertising. The second passage under consideration is represented by Robert A. Levy, and named â€Å"Alcohol Ads Do Not Promote Underage Drinking† suggests the idea that there is a number of more influencing factors concerning the increase of alcohol usage than the advertisements. He pays attention to the problem of underage consumption of alcoholic beverages. Levy introduces the concept about â€Å"the doctrine of personal accountability† and â€Å"the insidious notion that you can engage in risky behavior, then force someone else to pay for your mistakes† (n.p.). The idea that this message is more essential for the problem of usage alcohol by juvenile than any advertisement at all is appeared straightforwardly. Taking into account

Nursing Quality Improvement Action Plan Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nursing Quality Improvement Action Plan - Article Example The use of models like cultural competency, as designed by Campinha-Bacote, enable healthcare provider to continue striving towards attainment of the desired qualities necessary for working effectively in the context of individuals, clients, family as well as the entire community (Brathwaite 2003). Some of the quality improvement issues identified included lack of technology to engage patients as well as to transform healthcare into a more effective, efficient and patient centered. Also, many health institutions do not have adequate information technology tools to aid in documentations as well as monitoring quality improvements. In addition leadership support provided to nurses needed to be reviewed. There is also inadequate use of scorecards to highlight key strategies and tactics towards improvement of quality service delivery to the patients (Kaplan 1992).There are various issues that can be used to measure the quality of healthcare services being offered to patients. For instance nurses need to be engaged in the entire nursing process so as to boost his or her morale and trust in the system. Relevant information should be provided to the patient through proper communication. In case there is a communication breakdown between nurses and patients of among nurses, a lot of time will be required to gather relevant information about the patient. Spending much to acquire information about a patient reduces the effective time for providing health care services to patients.

Evaluating Performance of Starbucks Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Evaluating Performance of Starbucks - Case Study Example These ideas are closely connected with concepts of growth, achievements and satisfaction which help Starbucks to increase productivity and ensure stable market position. Motivational principles are based on equity theory. The theory is based on idea that "people need to feel that there is a fair balance between inputs and outputs" (Equity Theory 2007). The core of the staff works full-time in the organization while next to them or with them are employees on temporary assignments, part-time workers, and people working in joint venture settings. The result may therefore be individuals working together whose allegiances and concerns may involve differences that are highly important to Starbucks. Relationships, views, and expectations among those who are all part of one group-or who view themselves as part of the same company or as "insiders"-are different from the types of relationships and communication patterns that develop among those who view themselves as belonging to different gro ups. The aim of HR is to motivate both part-time and full-time employees and level possible differences. Equity has a great impact on satisfaction and achievements of employees. Starbucks provides provide financial and other resources for developing and implementing career programs for full-time and part-time employees, particularly programs emphasizing personal growth. They provide recognition of the frequently temporary nature of contemporary work settings while at the same time encouraging positive relationships between individuals and organizations over the long run. To achieve growth, Starbucks develops skills in the employees not previously realized and thus eventually prove beneficial to the individual and the organization. Starbucks uses such strategies as financial rewards and recognition to motivate and inspire employees of all ranks and positions. These accounts are linked to individual work patterns and individual work behavior in a more immediate manner. These plans foc us on health and welfare benefits as much as if not more than pay and pension concerns.). Equity theory can be seen as a strategy for achieving organizational growth and success rather than as a fixed cost of doing business. Also, these motivational strategies support high performance teams and influence cohesiveness and friendly atmosphere, cooperation with the workers, managers, and leaders, personal commitment and high productivity (Robbins, 2004).

Newly Qualified Nurse Responsibilities

Newly Qualified Nurse Responsibilities The aim of this assignment is to discuss the global roles and responsibilities of the newly qualified nurse. The exercise will begin by briefly looking at the transition from student to nurse and thereafter outlining the basic roles of the newly qualified nurse and try to fit them into appropriate professional skills. In addition, there will be a critical examination of two roles in more detail with one of them focusing on Patient Group Directions (PGD), and justify their importance. We will then look at some legal, professional and ethical considerations before making a conclusion on the future role development of the nurse. The NMC require a student nurse to demonstrate professional and ethical practice, be competent in care delivery and care management, and show personal and professional development in order to join the register (NMC, 2010). On becoming a qualified nurse, the expectations and dynamics of relationships changes fundamentally. Suddenly the newly qualified nurse is the one who must know the answer, whether it is a query from a patient, a carer, a work colleague or a student. The newly qualified nurse will encounter many challenging situations where she or he must lead care delivery. This includes dealing with care management within the team, dealing with patients/service users, dealing with other professionals, and dealing with the required needs of the whole workplace environment. These changes require a large shift from the experience of being a student and a mentored supervised learner, so it is essential that one is equipped with all the skills required to successfully make the transition. The newly qualified nurse must demonstrate they are fit to enter the NMC register and therefore be eligible to practice as a qualified nurse. In all cases, the newly qualified nurse is seen as: Provider of care Educator Counsellor Collaborator Researcher Change Agent Patient Advocate Manager The above are typically the roles of a newly qualified nurse which can be compressed into the NMC professional skills requirements listed below: Maintaining standards of care Making ethical and legal decisions Being accountable Teamworking Teaching others Being in charge. It is recognized that there is a certain amount of overlap in these professional skills and that some concepts cross all of them, in that there are no clear lines drawn where one skill ends and another starts. For the purpose of this analysis, we will look at the issue of making ethical and legal decisions and the Patient Group Direction. Decisions and actions are taken by nurses in the course of day-to-day practice. One would not usually consider each of the skills or concepts in isolation in relation to particular incidents but would make a decision based on the factors contributing to the situation. However, when analysing any situation, in the decisions made and the actions taken, some of the individual conceptual principles may be recognized and highlighted. For example, asking a member of staff to complete a task on your behalf is delegating. This fits neatly into leadership theory and also relates to aspects of accountability. Completing a health and safety audit in the work environment might relate to management theory and responsibility taken on. Completing a review of an individuals care and setting goals for them in multidisciplinary meetings might relate to team working theory. Reporting of poor practices or environments might relate to aspects of accountability and maintaining standards of care. However, all of the above aspects could arise from analysing one situation where the nurse has to make decisions about a certain aspect of care management thus emphasizing the great importance of making ethical and legal decisions. DECISION MAKING PROCESS Nurses are problem solvers who use the nursing process as their tool. The chief goal of ethical decision-making process is to determine right and wrong in situations where clear demarcations are not apparent, and then search for the best answer. For a newly qualified nurse, the following will be a guide to making ethical decisions: State the Dilemma State dilemma clearly, determine whether the problem/decision involves the nurse or only the patient, focus attention on ethical principles and follow the clients wishes first while considering the family input in case of unconsciousness. Collect and Analyze Data Know clients and familys wishes and all information about the problem. Keep abreast of any up to date legal and ethical issues; which may also overlap. Consider Choices of Action Most ethical dilemmas have multiple solutions, some of which are more feasible than others. The more options that are identified, the more likely it is that an acceptable solution can be identified. It may require input from outside sources and other professionals such as Social workers etc. Make the Decision The most difficult part of the process is making the decision, following through with the action, and then living with the consequences. Ethical dilemmas produce differences of opinion and not every one is pleased with the decision but it must be emphasized that clients wishes always supercede the decision by health care providers but ideally, a collaborative decision is made by client, family, doctor and nurse thus producing fewer complications. Act Once a course of action has been determined, the decision must be carried out. Implementing the decision usually involves collaboration with others. Evaluate Unexpected outcomes are common in crisis situations that result in ethical dilemmas. It is important for decision makers to determine the impact an immediate decision may have on future ones. It is also important to consider whether a different course of action might have resulted in a better outcome. If the outcome accomplished its purpose, the ethical dilemma should be resolved and if the dilemma has not been resolved, additional deliberation is needed. Patient Group Direction (PGD) The legislation (Statutory Instrument, 200a) states that Patient Group Direction means in connection with the supply of a prescription only medicine a written direction relating to the supply and administration of a description or class of prescription only medicine or a written direction relating to the administration of a description or class of description only medicine, and which in the case of either is signed by a doctor and by a pharmacist; and relates to the supply and administration, or to administration, to persons generally (subject to any exclusions which may be set out in the Direction). In practice this means that a PGD, signed by a doctor and agreed by a pharmacist, can act as a direction to a nurse to supply and/or administer prescription-only medicines (POMs) to patients using their own assessment of patient need, without necessarily referring back to a doctor for an individual prescription. When can PGDs be used? The law is clear that the majority of care should be provided on an individual, patient-specific basis, and that the supply and administration of medicines under PGDs should be reserved for those situations where this offers an advantage for patient care (without compromising safety), and where it is consistent with appropriate professional relationships and accountability. The RCN interprets this to mean that PGDs should only be used to supply and/or administer POMs to homogeneous patient groups where presenting characteristics and requirements are sufficiently consistent for them to be included in the PGD e.g. infants and children requiring immunisation as part of a national programme. Which POMs can be supplied or administered under a PGD? PGDs can be used to supply and administer a wide range of POMs although there are currently legislative and good practice restrictions in relation to controlled drugs, antimicrobials and black triangle drugs. Controlled drugs The use of controlled drugs continues to be regulated under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and associated regulations made under that Act. The Home Office has agreed to allow the supply and administration of substances on Schedule 4 (with the exclusion of anabolic steroids) and all substances on schedule 5 to be included in PGDs. Antimicrobials can be included within a PGD but consideration must be given to the risk of increased resistance within the general community. When seeking to draw up a PGD for antimicrobials, a local microbiologist should be involved and approval sought from the drug and therapeutics committee or equivalent. Black triangle drugs and medicines used outside the terms of the Summary of Product Characteristics Black triangle drugs (i.e. those recently licensed and subject to special reporting arrangements for adverse reactions) and medicines used outside the terms of the Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC) sometimes called off label use (for example, as used in some areas of specialist paediatric care) may be included in PGDs. Their use should be exceptional and justified by best clinical practice, and a direction should clearly describe the status of the products. How should PGDs be drawn up? The law (Statutory Instrument, 2000a) requires that PGDs should be drawn up by a pharmacist and the doctor who works with the nurses who will be using them. The relevant health authority should also ratify the PGD. In England, when PGDs are developed locally, HSC 2000/026 (NHSE, 2000) requires that a senior doctor and a senior pharmacist sign them off with authorisation from the appropriate health organisation, i.e. the trust, and that all nurses using the directions are specifically named within the PGD and signed by them. The RCN acknowledges this as good practice and recommends the following steps be taken throughout the UK. The NMC Standards for Medicines Management (2007) state that the administration of drugs via PGDs may not be delegated and students cannot supply or administer under a PGD. Students would however be expected to understand the principles and be involved in the process (NMC 2007). Failure to ascertain that a PGD is the most appropriate route can lead to waste of valuable time and resource and place increased risk on delivery and quality of patient care. Anyone involved with PGDs (whether developing, authorising or practising under them) should understand the scope and limitations of PGDs as well as the wider context into which they fit to ensure safe, effective services for patients. Any extension to professional roles with regard to administration and supply of medicines must take into account the need to protect patient safety, ensure continuity of care and safeguard patient choice and convenience. It also has to be cost effective and bring demonstrable benefits to patient care. Any practice requiring a PGD that fails to comply with the criteria falls outside of the Law and could result in criminal prosecution under the Medicines Act. With regard to the written instruction required for the supply and administration of medicines by non-professionals, Medicines Matters (2006) (3) clarifies that a suitably trained non-professional member of staff can only administer medicines under a Patient Specific Direction (PSD). Medicine Matters (2006) states that: Patient Specific Direction is the traditional written instruction, from a doctor, dentist, nurse or pharmacist independent prescriber, for medicines to be supplied or administered to a named patient. The majority of medicines are still supplied or administered using this process. There is nothing in legislation to prevent PSDs being used to administer medicines to several named patients e.g. on a clinic list. PSDs are a direct instruction and therefore do not require an assessment of the patient by the health care professional instructed to supply or administer the medicine. Pharmacy Only (P) and General Sales List (GSL) Medicines Medicines legislation states that a PGD is not required to administer a P or GSL medicine. The use of a simple protocol is advisable for best practice and from a governance perspective. All medicines administered must be recorded in the patients medical record. Where a GSL medicine is to be supplied it must be taken from lockable premises and supplied in a pre-pack which is fully labelled and meets the GSL requirements. A PGD will be necessary for the supply of P medicines by anyone other than a registered pharmacist. Recommend further advice to be sought from a pharmacist. (Ref: NPC PGDs 2004). For safe administration of drugs, the newly qualified nurse must give the right dose of the right drug to the right patient in the right route at the right time. When giving medications, the nurse needs to be aware of possible interactions between the patients different drugs. It is the nurses responsibility to protect the patient from harm. If they think the wrong drug or the wrong dose has been ordered, they must ask for help from the nurse or the doctor in charge. The newly qualified nurse needs to know the doses of the drug which are safe to administer. Sometimes the pharmacy gives out drugs in grams when the order specifies milligrams, or the other way around. They need to know how to convert these. It is important to know what types of dilemmas newly qualified nurses may face during their careers and how they may deal with it. It is also important for nurses to understand what malpractice is and how they may protect themselves from a malpractice suit. Firstly, it is important to understand the difference between law and ethics. Ethics examines the values and actions of people. Often times, there is no one right course of action when one is faced with an ethical dilemma. On the other hand, laws are binding rules of conduct. When laws are broken, it is punishable by an authority. There are four types of situations that pertain to law and ethics. The first would be an action that is both legal and ethical. An example of this would be a nurse carrying out appropriate doctors orders as ordered. A nurse may also be faced with an action that may be ethical but not legal, such as allowing a cancer patient to smoke marijuana for medicinal purposes. The opposite may arise where an action may be legal but not ethical. Finally, an action may be neither legal nor ethical. For example, when a nurse makes a medication error and does not take responsibility to report to it appropriately. The right of service users to expect practitioners to act in their best interests is reinforced by professional codes of conduct and legislation such as the Mental Health Act. It is also reflected in equality of opportunity legislations such as the Sex Discrimination Act and the Race Relation Act, which aim to ensure that everybody has equal access to and is offered equal care by health and social care service. Patients right to confidentiality under statutory duties is stipulated in the Data Protection Act, Article 8 European Convention of Human Rights, Access to Personal Files Act 1987 and Access to Health Record Acts 1990. The code does require that nurses must disclose information if they believe someone may be at risk of harm in line with the law. As a nurse, respecting autonomy means you must effectively communicate with patients, be truthful, enable patients to make decisions freely, provide appropriate information and accept the patients preferences. Legally, patients must be given enough information to make a balanced judgement however we must be aware that if nurses fail to comply with the legal duty of disclosure, they could face a negligence claim. However, under the principle of therapeutic privilege they can legally withhold information that they think will harm the patient Some patients whether children or adults are unable either to make or to communicate their decisions therefore they lack (or have limited) capacity. The Mental Capacity Act 2005 that create and clarifies the common law on consent in England and Wales, affects everyone aged 16 and over, and provides a statutory framework to empower and protect people who may not be able to make some decisions for themselves. The moral justifications for acting without consent are the principles of beneficence (the duty to do good) and non-maleficence (the duty to do no harm). Paternalism is overriding someones autonomy because you think it is for their own good. However, it is justifiable if we can demonstrate that the patient is at risk of significant, preventable harm, or the action will probably prevent the harm, or the patients capacity for rational reflection is either absent or significantly impaired, or at a later time, it can be assumed that the patient will approve of the decision taken on his/her behalf, or the benefits to the patient of intervention outweigh the risks. Also, we live in a society where demands for accountability and taking responsibility are so commonplace that pinning the blame on someone or something has become almost a fad. The NHS culture of blame has developed basically because no one wants to be accountable or responsible for actions or omissions hence there are no longer any accidents or mistakes. Principles of beneficence and non-maleficence underpin the concept of fault which lies at the heart of negligence law. Beneficence means that you must act in ways that benefit others (i.e. duty to care), and Non-maleficence means that you have a duty not to harm others nor subject them to risk of harm. Every nursing intervention that aims to benefit patients may at the same time also harm them. Sometimes the harm will be unavoidable or even intentional and at other times it can be unintentional and unexpected, therefore it is appropriate to think about the principles of non-maleficence and beneficence together in order to balance harm and benefits against each other. We can resolve this problem responsibility and accountability. These words are sometimes used interchangeably because they do overlap but in actual fact they do not mean the same thing. Being responsible can mean that it is your job or role to deal with something and/or that you have caused something to happen. Accountability on the other hand is about justifying your action or omissions and establishing whether there are good enough reasons for acting in the way you did. Even where the newly qualified nurse delegate tasks to others, such as nursing auxiliaries or care assistants she/he is accountable to the patients through a duty of care, underpinned by a common-law duty to promote safety and efficiency, and legal responsibility through civil law, the employer as defined by your contract of employment, the profession as stated in the relevant codes of conduct and the public. Conclusion All newly qualified nurses were faced with assumptions from others that they should know everything. This was also a high expectation they had of themselves. In meeting the NMC standards of proficiency the nurse should have demonstrated the relevant knowledge and skills in order to practise in their relevant specialized fields. However, it is important to recognize that not every nurse knows everything about everything in their field, especially if they are practising in highly specialized fields. What they need is to be able to develop and adapt to changing situations. Therefore, for the nurse it is impossible to know everything, but they should have developed the skills to find out relevant information, reflect on it, and apply this to their practice. In essence they should have learned how to learn. There is a great deal to be learned once qualified, especially related to a nurses new area of work and a good deal of the development needs to take place on the job.